About the Author(s)


Lizahn Nortje Email symbol
Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Megan Jaworska symbol
Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Ryan A. Davids symbol
Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Citation


Nortje L, Jaworska M, Davids RA. Availability and functionality of the resuscitation equipment and drugs in a tertiary hospital in South Africa: A cross-sectional study. South Afr J Anaesth Analg. 2026;32(1), a1553. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajaa.v32i1.1553

Original Research

Availability and functionality of the resuscitation equipment and drugs in a tertiary hospital in South Africa: A cross-sectional study

Lizahn Nortje, Megan Jaworska, Ryan A. Davids

Received: 17 Dec. 2025; Accepted: 25 Jan. 2026; Published: 03 Mar. 2026

Copyright: © 2026. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Background: In-hospital cardiac arrest survival rates remain suboptimal globally – approximately 36% in children and 17% – 25% in adults. Prompt intervention with appropriate skills, equipment and drugs is essential to improve outcomes.

Aim: This study aimed to assess the availability and functionality of resuscitation equipment and drugs at Tygerberg Hospital, a tertiary institution in South Africa.

Setting: Tygerberg Hospital, a tertiary institution in South Africa.

Methods: A prospective, quantitative, observational study was conducted to audit resuscitation trolleys throughout the hospital. The Emergency Medicine Society of South Africa guidelines served as the audit standard.

Results: A total of 102 resuscitation trolleys were assessed: 80 for combined adult and paediatric use and 22 for neonatal care. In adult and paediatric areas, 42.6% of items were available and functional, 2.4% were non-functional and 55% were unavailable. In neonatal areas, 39.7% were available and functional, 1.3% non-functional and 59% unavailable. Highest compliance was seen in high-care areas (48.8% for adult and paediatric, 46.3% for neonatal), with lowest compliance in clinics (35.3%) and neonatal wards (36.4%).

Conclusion: The audit revealed substantial deficiencies in the availability and functionality of resuscitation equipment and drugs, which may negatively impact patient outcomes during cardiac arrest scenarios.

Contribution: These findings highlight the need for structured, routine audits and daily equipment checks, supported by a standardised resuscitation trolley protocol aligned with national guidelines.

Keywords: emergency; drugs; emergency trolley; resuscitation equipment; essential drugs.

Introduction

Cardiac arrest is a devastating medical emergency with substantial implications for patient health and survival.1 Timely recognition and the implementation of measures to achieve the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) are paramount.1,2 In the United States, approximately 290 000 in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) events occur annually.3 Historically, cardiac arrest outcomes have been grim, but research over the past two decades has shown improvements.4 In 2022, Jerkeman et al. reported that survival rates after IHCA increased 1.2-fold from 2004 to 2020,5 while Girotra et al. noted an 8.6% improvement in survival between 2000 and 2009.6

A Swedish study by Widestedt et al. revealed that up to 57% of IHCA events occur in general wards, where mortality remains alarmingly high, with 83% of patients succumbing within a month.7 Recognising this, the European Resuscitation Council prioritised cardiac arrest prevention.7,8

In-hospital cardiac arrest rates also show significant variability across countries and institutions. In the United Kingdom, cases range from 1 to 10 per 1000 admissions,9 while the exact global incidence remains unknown. However, Strydom et al. documented a 15.5% survival rate for IHCA in South Africa at Universitas Academic Hospital, underscoring the need for frequent staff training and rapid interventions such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and defibrillation.10

Research consistently highlights that early CPR improves survival outcomes.1,10 However, these outcomes rely heavily on the availability and functionality of resuscitation equipment and medications.10,11 Deficiencies in these resources can result in delays, adverse outcomes or even fatalities.4,11 Adequate emergency care necessitates functional resuscitation equipment and drugs in all patient-contact areas of healthcare facilities.12,13

Janatolmakan et al. categorised CPR barriers into three primary domains, identifying equipment-related issues such as the lack of Ambu bags and mismatched endotracheal tube sizes as contributors to failure. They recommended systematic resuscitation equipment checks at the start of each shift.14 Similarly, a prospective multicentre study in 2021 highlighted overcrowding (27%) and poor team ergonomics (17%) as key barriers, with equipment issues cited less frequently but still critical.15

To ensure timely and effective resuscitation, international bodies have established guidelines for the standardisation of equipment and drugs. The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) and the American Heart Association (AHA) advocate for the ‘Chain of Survival’, which includes early recognition, CPR initiation, defibrillation and advanced life support with post-cardiac arrest care. The European Resuscitation Council and ILCOR emphasise the need for preparedness to address potential equipment failures.7,16,17,18

In South Africa, the Emergency Medicine Society of South Africa (EMSSA) has developed guidelines for essential CPR resources. These include devices for airway management, intubation, oxygenation, cardiac dysrhythmia management and medication administration.12,13 Compliance with such guidelines can significantly improve outcomes.19,20 This study therefore aimed to assess the availability and functionality of resuscitation equipment and drugs at Tygerberg hospital, a tertiary institution in the Western Cape.

Research methods and design

Study design and setting

The study was designed as a prospective, quantitative, observational cross-sectional study conducted at a tertiary hospital in the Western Cape, South Africa. The STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) guideline was used to report this study.21 The audit took place from October 2023 to December 2023, with the primary outcome to determine whether the resuscitation trolleys were adequately stocked with functional equipment and drugs. All audits were personally conducted by the primary investigator during normal daytime working hours. The study utilised the national EMSSA checklist as the audit tool, which comprised 154 items for combined adult and paediatric resuscitation trolleys and 111 items for neonatal resuscitation trolleys.12,13

Study sample and data collection

The study sample was a cohort that included all resuscitation trolleys in each patient-contact area in the entire hospital. These areas included neonatal, paediatric and adult wards, as well as clinics, admission/emergency units, intensive care units (ICU) and high-care units. In total, 102 resuscitation trolleys were evaluated.

The primary investigator collected all data and established specific criteria for evaluating functional equipment, defined as being in working order, undamaged, non-expired and containing all necessary components. Similarly, drugs were classified as available only if they were not expired, damaged or contaminated. For an item to be considered available, it was sufficient for just one item to be present in the resuscitation trolley. Equipment and drugs that were present but not in working condition, damaged or expired were assessed as available but non-functional, and absent equipment and drugs were classified as unavailable.

The audit was conducted over 3 months, between October 2023 and December 2023, to account for the fact that resuscitations can occur at any time, ensuring that the resuscitation trolleys were always ready for emergencies. Data collection started after the investigators obtained ethics and hospital approval. The primary investigator provided the operational manager in charge of the clinical setting with the ethics and hospital approval letter immediately before each evaluation, without prior notice, to minimise bias in the assessment. During data collection, none of the resuscitation trolleys audited were in active use, as no cardiac arrest events occurred in those areas at the time. There was no disruption of the resuscitation trolley content during the audit.

According to the hospital’s local policy, all adult and paediatric areas must provide resuscitation equipment and drugs for both adult and paediatric patients. These areas were assessed together and referred to as adult and paediatric sites. The adult and paediatric and neonatal resuscitation trolley data were analysed separately, as the neonatal patient-contact areas (referred to as neonatal sites) were assessed using a different checklist tool. However, the neonatal checklist was still based on, and adapted from, the EMSSA guidelines.12,13

Data analysis

Microsoft Excel (MS Excel®) was used to capture the data, and descriptive statistical analysis was performed. Compliance was assessed by calculating the proportions of available and functional items, available but non-functional items or unavailable items. These were evaluated according to:

  • Compliance of the resuscitation trolleys (Figure 1).
  • Compliance regarding items grouped into 11-item categories (Figure 2):
    • Devices to open and protect the airway.
    • Devices to confirm tracheal intubation.
    • Equipment for difficult intubation.
    • Devices to deliver oxygen and to ventilate lungs.
    • Equipment to diagnose and treat cardiac dysrhythmias.
    • Devices to gain intravenous (IV) access.
    • Monitoring equipment for airway, breathing and circulation.
    • Appropriate hardware.
    • Miscellaneous.
    • Essential drugs.
    • Intravenous solutions.
  • Compliance by four site groups, categorised as follows (Figure 3):
    • Group 1: Hospital wards.
    • Group 2: High-care units (including ICU and theatre recovery rooms).
    • Group 3: Clinics.
    • Group 4: Admission areas, for example, emergency centre (EC).
FIGURE 1: Box-and-whisker plot of the compliance rate of resuscitation trolley content.

FIGURE 2: Compliance of resuscitation equipment and drugs on the resuscitation trolley for adult and paediatric and neonatal sites per item category.

FIGURE 3: Compliance of resuscitation equipment and drugs on the resuscitation trolley for adult and paediatric- and neonatal sites per site grouping.

Cross tabulations were used to analyse and compare the compliance between different group sites. Groups were compared using Chi-square or Fisher’s exact tests, as appropriate. An alpha value of 0.05 was regarded as statistically significant. If p < 0.05, the post-hoc Marascuilo procedure was applied to identify which intergroup differences were significant. The Marascuilo procedure is a multiple-comparison test used for categorical data, allowing pairwise comparisons of proportions across more than two groups while controlling for type I error. MS Excel® was utilised to generate graphs, tables and figures.

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of Stellenbosch University (HREC Reference no. S23/07/148).

Results

Compliance of the 80 adult and paediatric sites

Of the possible total of 12 320 items (154 items in each of 80 sites), 5250 (42.6%) were available and functional, 294 (2.4%) were available but non-functional and 6776 (55%) were unavailable. The median compliance for the contents of all resuscitation trolleys was 42.9%, with an interquartile range (IQR) of 38.1% to 46.9%, indicating that 50% of the compliance rates fall within this range. Compliance varied significantly, ranging from 9.7% in the hospital ward group to 68.2% in the high-care group (Figure 1). Compliance regarding the 11-item categories ranged from 2.5% for devices used to confirm tracheal intubation to 77.5% for equipment used for dysrhythmias (Figure 2). All four site groups attained less than 50% compliance, with the highest compliance in the high-care group (48.8%) and the lowest in the clinic group (35.3%) (Figure 3). The individual resuscitation trolley with the lowest compliance, at 9%, was in the clinic group, while the one with the highest compliance, at 68%, was in the high-care group.

Compliance of the 22 neonatal sites

Of a possible total of 2442 items (111 items at each of the 22 sites), 970 (39.7%) were available and functional, 30 (1.3%) were available but non-functional and 1442 (59%) were unavailable. The median compliance for the contents of all resuscitation trolleys was 40.5%, with an IQR of 35.3% to 44.8%, ranging from 27% in the hospital ward group to 65% in the high-care group (Figure 1). Compliance regarding the 11-item categories ranged from 0% for devices to confirm tracheal intubation to 58.2% for devices to obtain IV access (Figure 2). Among the four site groups, the highest compliance was achieved by the high-care group (46.3%), while the lowest was the hospital ward group (36.4%) (Figure 3).

Devices to open and protect the airway, specifically oropharyngeal airways (OPA) size 2, were available in 91% of adult and paediatric sites, while OPA sizes 4 and 5 were found in 59% and 0% of trolleys, respectively. The highest compliance for endotracheal tube (ETT) was observed with size 7.0, available in 86.3% of trolleys, whereas ETT size 6.5 was available in only 50%. Nasopharyngeal airways (NPA) exhibited poor compliance, with the highest being only 10% for a 30-French-size NPA.

Devices to confirm tracheal intubations displayed suboptimal compliance. Stethoscope had an overall compliance of 56% although oesophageal detector devices had 5% compliance, and the ETCO2 monitor had 5% compliance in the adult areas compared to 0% in paediatric areas.

The equipment for difficult intubation showed varying levels of compliance. ETT stylets had an overall compliance rate of 45%, adult Magill’s forceps had 50% compliance and adult bougies had 38.8% compliance.

Intraosseous lines were available in only 1.3% of adult/paediatric sites and were absent in neonatal sites. Broselow tape was present in 7.5% of adult and paediatric sites but was lacking in all neonatal sites.

In the adult and paediatric sites, adrenaline had a compliance rate of 92.5%, while atropine and naloxone each had a compliance rate of 95%. Amiodarone and IV lignocaine had compliance rates of 76.3% and 82.5%, respectively. Fifty per cent dextrose solution had a compliance rate of 83.8% in the adult and paediatric sites and 72.7% in the neonatal sites.

This box-and-whisker plot illustrates the distribution of overall compliance for 154 items in the 80 resuscitation trolleys for the adult and paediatric sites (left blue box) and 111 items in the 22 resuscitation trolleys for the neonatal sites (right yellow box). The grey box represents the IQR of the adult and paediatric sites, which is lower than the IQR (yellow box) of the neonatal sites. The higher IQR in the neonatal sites indicates greater variability in compliance rates. The solid line in the middle of each box indicates the median, which is lower in the neonatal group compared to the adult/paediatric group. The rounded dots outside the box-and-whisker plot represent outliers.

Discussion

Previous research has highlighted the crucial role of resuscitation equipment in improving outcomes during IHCA.22,23,24 However, there is a lack of recent data evaluating the availability and functionality of such equipment in South African healthcare facilities. This represents a significant gap, as ensuring resuscitation trolley readiness is critical for delivering timely and effective emergency care. To address this gap, this study assessed the availability and functionality of resuscitation equipment and drugs in a tertiary healthcare institution in Cape Town, South Africa. By conducting a comprehensive audit of resuscitation trolleys, the study aimed to determine compliance with EMSSA guidelines.12,13 The findings revealed notable deficiencies that may impact the quality of resuscitation efforts and patient outcomes.

Among the 80 adult and paediatric sites, certain critical items were strikingly underrepresented: only 62.5% of sites had defibrillators, 60% had medical oxygen and 67.5% had functional suction devices. Furthermore, only 38.8% had an adult bougie, 10% had spare laryngoscope batteries and none had spare light bulbs or end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) monitoring devices. The absence of ETCO2 monitoring is particularly concerning, as it forms part of the AHA’s Adult Cardiac Arrest Algorithm, both for assessing CPR quality and for establishing ROSC.18 These deficiencies highlight areas where immediate improvements are required. It is noteworthy that the EMSSA guidelines do not include a video laryngoscope as part of the recommended resuscitation trolley contents although some international guidelines increasingly recognise its role given wider availability in recent years.20

The EMSSA guideline has been used as an audit tool in numerous South and sub-Saharan African studies.22,23,24 Despite the existence of guidelines, resource availability varies widely, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Tsima et al. assessed resuscitation equipment availability in Botswana, reporting significant gaps ranging from 19% to 31.1%, with daily equipment checks only in critical care units.22 Hunie et al. documented similar deficiencies in Ethiopian healthcare facilities, emphasising the need for regular audits and restocking.23 In Johannesburg, Pillay et al. conducted an audit of emergency airway equipment and drugs in a tertiary hospital using a modified EMSSA checklist. They found that 67% of equipment and drugs were functional, 2% were available but non-functional and 31% were absent. Their recommendations included standardising checklists and improving staff training.24

A cross-sectional study by King et al. evaluating paediatric emergency units in Cape Town reported that only 43% of essential resuscitation equipment items were available on trolleys and 42% were functional, with no significant differences between district- and tertiary-level hospitals.25 These findings, like the present study, highlight substantial equipment deficiencies in South African facilities and emphasise that suboptimal availability remains a modifiable barrier to delivering high-quality paediatric emergency care.25

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate the availability and functionality of all resuscitation equipment and drugs in an entire tertiary institution within South Africa, in alignment with the EMSSA guidelines.12,13 According to this guideline, the evaluation revealed deficiencies in the functionality and availability of resuscitation equipment and drugs within this tertiary healthcare establishment. Furthermore, the investigation highlighted the need for a standardised protocol that aligns with national guidelines. The current local policy includes accessory items, such as procedure packs, Sinapi chest kits, trocar and chest drain packs. These accessory items have the potential to clutter the resuscitation trolley and compromise the inclusion of essential items required for the effective management of cardiopulmonary arrest. Neither policy included adenosine as an essential item. The AHA’s guidelines recommend adenosine for supraventricular tachycardia.26,27

In both adult and paediatric and neonatal sites, the high-care groups demonstrated superior compliance rates compared to the clinic groups, indicating a higher frequency of emergency occurrences in the former settings. This observation suggests a greater likelihood of emergency interventions among critically ill patients in high-care settings. While this discrepancy may explain the clinic group’s lower compliance, it underscores the necessity for comprehensive availability of resuscitation equipment and drugs across all hospital settings.

An emergency cricothyrotomy set was unavailable in all the resuscitation trolleys. According to the local policy, it is not considered an essential item although it forms part of the EMSSA guideline.28 Similarly, the limited availability of elastic bougies is concerning. Rescue airway devices are essential in all clinical settings; previous studies have demonstrated poor compliance with their availability.22,24,29 Borkar et al. found that using Broselow tape in an emergency accurately estimates a child’s weight when weight measurement is not feasible, reducing errors in selecting appropriately sized ETTs or laryngeal airway masks.30 Therefore, its inclusion in resuscitation trolleys is essential; however, compliance in this audit was poor.

Adrenaline, atropine and naloxone had the highest compliance rates among emergency drugs. Amiodarone and IV lignocaine also showed high compliance, which aligns with their importance according to AHA guidelines.17,18 Nonetheless, efforts to further enhance compliance rates remain necessary to ensure optimal readiness during resuscitation efforts.

Most emergency drugs are stored in the resuscitation trolley, while scheduled drugs and muscle relaxants are kept in locked cupboards or refrigerators. This storage arrangement may delay healthcare personnel’s access to critical medications during emergencies, potentially compromising patient care. Practical solutions include using tamper-evident breakaway locks or transparent sealed containers within trolleys, which maintain security while allowing rapid access.

Study limitations

This is a single-centre study, therefore challenging the extrapolation of this data to different settings. Additionally, the study’s cross-sectional nature cannot account for confounders, such as temporary stock shortages or supply chain disruptions. Variability in staff training and experience regarding resuscitation protocols could have influenced compliance rates.

Conclusion

Future research should focus on auditing daily checks of the resuscitation trolleys, as outlined by the EMSSA guideline, to identify frequently used items and investigate barriers associated with inadequately stocked trolleys. Follow-up assessments should compare institutional policies with national guidelines to identify areas for improvement.

Regular audits are essential to ensure resuscitation trolleys are adequately stocked with functional equipment and non-expired drugs. These audits should account for recent usage and replenishment processes to maintain readiness for resuscitative efforts.

The findings of this study raise significant concerns regarding the absence of critical resuscitation equipment and drugs, which can compromise the outcome of resuscitation efforts. Ongoing policy evaluation, staff training and addressing knowledge deficits are imperative to ensure that functional equipment and drugs are available across all clinical settings, thereby improving patient outcomes.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Prof. Johan Coetzee, Emeritus Professor at Stellenbosch University, for assistance with data analysis, Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, Stellenbosch University.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

CRediT authorship contribution

Lizahn Nortje: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Visualisation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Megan Jaworska: Supervision. Ryan A. Davids: Supervision.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not openly available because of reasons of sensitivity and are available from the corresponding author, Lizahn Nortje, upon reasonable request.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

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